Earth’s Diverse Geomorphic Features—A Comprehensive Guide for UPSC

Introduction

The Earth’s surface is a dynamic and ever-changing canvas shaped by a variety of natural processes. These processes give rise to a wide array of geomorphic features—landforms that range from towering mountains to vast plains, deep valleys, and rugged coastlines. If you are preparing for the UPSC/APSC, understanding the origin and evolution of these features is important, as it forms the foundation of physical geography in both the Preliminary and Mains stages of the Civil Services Examination.

In this article, we will discuss the diverse geomorphic features of the Earth, exploring their classifications, processes of formation, examples, and significance from both physical and human geography perspectives.  Let’s  make the journey easier for you and understand each topics. 

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Geomorphic Processes

Geomorphic processes are natural mechanisms responsible for the formation and alteration of landforms on the Earth’s surface. These processes operate through physical forces and chemical reactions, constantly reshaping the landscape.

Classification of Geomorphic Processes

1. Endogenic Processes (Internal Forces)

These originate within the Earth and are driven by internal heat, tectonic activity, magma, radioactivity, and gravitational pressure. They are responsible for building up the Earth’s surface features

Types of Endogenic Processes:

• Slow Movements (Diastrophism):
  These involve large-scale movements of the Earth’s crust over long periods.
  
  • Epeirogenic Movements: It causes uplift or subsidence of landmasses (e.g., the Deccan Plateau).
    
  • Orogenic Movements: Lead to the formation of mountains through folding and faulting (e.g., Himalayas, Alps).
    
• Sudden Movements:
  These occur abruptly and can be highly destructive.
  
  • Earthquakes: Caused by the release of built-up stress along faults.
    
  • Volcanic Eruptions: Occur due to the rise of magma to the surface.

Examples of Endogenic Processes: 

1. Mountain. 
2. Volcanic Mountains : These mountains form when volcanoes erupt. The lava that comes out cools down and becomes hard, slowly building up into a mountain.
   There are two main types:

• Shield Volcanoes have gentle slopes because the lava that comes out flows easily. Example: Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
• Stratovolcanoes, or composite volcanoes, are steeper, and their eruptions are more violent. Examples: Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Vesuvius in Italy.

Most volcanic mountains are found around the Pacific Ocean in an area called the Pacific Ring of Fire.

2. Fold Mountains : These are formed when two tectonic plates push against each other. The land between them gets squeezed and rises up in folds, forming mountains.
   Examples: Himalayas, Andes, Alps.
3. Block Mountains : These mountains form when cracks in the Earth’s surface (called faults) cause blocks of land to rise or fall. 

• The higher parts are called horsts.
• The lower, sunken parts are called grabens.
• Example: Sierra Nevada Range in the USA.

4. Residual Mountains : These mountains are what’s left after wind, rain, and other natural forces slowly wear down the surrounding land. That’s why they are also called Mountains of Denudation. Examples: Scottish Highlands, Scandinavian Mountains, Balkan Peninsula.
5. Dome Mountains :  These are formed when hot magma from inside the Earth pushes the crust upward but doesn’t break through. The surface forms a round, dome shape. Over time, the top layers wear away, and the hard rock underneath is exposed.  Examples: Black Hills of South Dakota (USA) 

B. Plateaus

Plateaus are large, flat, elevated areas that have been uplifted by tectonic or volcanic activity. They are often rich in minerals and form important physiographic units. 

Types of Plateaus (Based on Location and Rock Structure)

1. Intermontane Plateaus : These plateaus are located between or near mountain ranges. Sometimes, they are completely surrounded by mountains.

Example: Tibetan Plateau—It is surrounded by high mountains like the Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun, and Tien Shan.

2. Piedmont Plateaus :  These plateaus are found at the base (foot) of mountains. One side touches the mountains, and the other side opens into plains or the sea.

 Examples: Malwa Plateau in India , Appalachian Plateau in the USA (between the Appalachian Mountains and Atlantic Coastal Plain)

3. Continental Plateaus : These plateaus are formed when large parts of land rise up (uplift) or when lava from volcanoes spreads over the land and hardens, covering the original surface.

 Examples: Deccan Plateau in Maharashtra (lava-covered), Snake River Plateau in the northwestern USA

C.  Earthquakes and Fault Valleys

Tectonic movements cause faulting (cracking of Earth’s crust) and earthquakes, leading to features like rift valleys and horsts.

Examples: East African Rift Valley, Narmada and Tapi Rift Valleys in India

2. Exogenic Processes (External Forces)

These operate on the Earth’s surface and are driven by external forces such as solar energy and gravity. They lead to the wearing down of elevated areas and the filling of depressions. 

Main Exogenic Processes:

• Weathering:
  The breakdown of rocks in situ due to atmospheric conditions.
  
  • Physical Weathering: Due to temperature changes, frost, etc.
    
  • Chemical Weathering: Due to chemical reactions like carbonation.
    
  • Biological Weathering: Caused by the actions of plants and animals.
    
• Mass Wasting (Mass Movement):
  The downslope movement of rock and soil under the influence of gravity.
  
  • Slow movements: Creep
    
  • Rapid movements: Landslides, mudflows
    
• Erosion and Deposition:
  
  • Erosion: The removal and transportation of surface material by agents like rivers, wind, ice, and waves.
    
  • Deposition: The laying down of sediments carried by erosional agents when their energy decreases.

Exogenic forces include weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition. These shape the Earth’s surface gradually and are responsible for creating secondary landforms such as valleys, sand dunes, and coastal landforms.

A. Fluvial Landforms (Formed by rivers)

Rivers are powerful agents of erosion, transportation, and deposition, especially in humid climates.

Erosional Features:

These are landforms made when rivers wear away the land.

• V-shaped Valleys—Formed in the upper course of a river, where the river cuts deep into the land, making a valley shaped like a “V.”
  
• Gorges and Canyons – Very deep and narrow valleys with steep sides, formed due to the strong cutting action of rivers over a long time.
  
• Waterfalls—These occur when the river falls from a great height over a hard rock layer. Example: Jog Falls, Niagara Falls.
  

Depositional Features

These are landforms made when rivers drop (deposit) the material they carry.

1. Floodplains—Flat areas on both sides of a river formed when the river floods and deposits mud and silt.
   
2. Alluvial Fans—A fan-shaped area formed where a river slows down and spreads out, usually at the bottom of hills.
   
3. Deltas—Triangle-shaped land at the mouth of a river, formed from rich soil carried by the river.
   Example: Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta—the world’s largest delta.

b.Aeolian Landforms (Formed by Wind)

These landforms are created by the action of wind, especially in desert and semi-desert areas where the soil is loose and dry.

Erosional Features

These are formed when wind wears away rocks and soil.

1. Yardangs—long, narrow ridges of hard rock left behind after wind blows away the softer rock.
   
2. Mushroom Rocks—Rocks shaped like mushrooms, with a thin base and wider top, formed by strong winds blowing sand at the base. 

Depositional Features

These form when wind drops the sand and dust it carries.

1. Sand Dunes—Hills of sand formed by wind.
   
   • Barchans—crescent-shaped dunes.
     
   • Seif Dunes—Long, narrow dunes that form in the direction of the wind.
     
2. Loess Plains—Flat plains formed by fine dust (called loess) blown by the wind and deposited over large areas.

Examples: Thar Desert in India, Sahara Desert in Africa

C. Glacial Landforms (Formed by Glaciers)

In very cold places, glaciers (large moving bodies of ice) shape the land by eroding (wearing away) rocks and depositing the material they carry.

Erosional Features

These landforms are made when glaciers scrape and wear down the land.

1. Cirques – Bowl-shaped hollows found at the start of a glacier, where snow and ice gather.
   
2. U-shaped Valleys – Wide, flat valleys with steep sides formed as glaciers move and erode the land. Unlike V-shaped river valleys, they are shaped like the letter “U.”
   
3. Aretes – Sharp ridges between two cirques or glacial valleys.

Depositional Features

These form when glaciers melt and leave behind the rocks and soil they carried.

1. Moraines – Piles of rocks and soil left along the sides or at the end of a glacier.
   
2. Drumlins – Smooth, oval-shaped hills made of glacial deposits.
   
3. Eskers—long, winding ridges of sand and gravel left by streams flowing under a glacier.
   

Examples: Himalayas , Alps, Antarctica

D. Coastal Landforms (Formed by Sea Waves)

The sea shapes the coastline through waves, tides, and currents. These processes cause erosion and deposition, creating many interesting landforms.

Erosional Features

Formed when strong sea waves wear away the rocks along the coast.

1. Cliffs – Steep rock faces along the coastline formed by wave erosion.
   
2. Sea Arches – Arch-shaped rocks formed when waves cut through a cliff.
   
3. Stacks—Tall pillars of rock left behind in the sea after a sea arch collapses.

Depositional Features

Formed when the sea deposits sand, silt, and other materials.

1. Beaches – Sandy or pebbly areas along the shore formed by wave deposition.
   
2. Spits and Bars – Narrow strips of sand stretching into the sea, formed by waves and currents.
   
3. Lagoons – Shallow lakes or water bodies separated from the sea by a sandbar or spit.

Examples: Kerala Backwaters, Chilika Lake (Odisha)

E. Karst Landforms (Chemical Weathering of Limestone)

Karst landforms are made in areas where the ground is made of limestone or dolomite. When rainwater mixes with carbon dioxide, it forms a weak acid that dissolves the rock. This is called chemical weathering (especially solution and carbonation).

Erosional Features

Formed when acidic water dissolves the limestone.

1. Sinkholes (Dolines)—Round or deep holes formed when the land suddenly collapses as the limestone below dissolves.
   
2. Lapis – Grooved and uneven rock surfaces caused by water flowing over limestone.

Depositional Features

Depositional Features

Formed when dissolved limestone is left behind as water drips in caves.

1. Stalactites – Icicle-shaped formations that hang from the roof of caves.
   
2. Stalagmites – Cone-shaped formations that grow up from the floor of caves.
   

Examples: Karst region of Slovenia,  Meghalaya (India)

Importance of Earth’s Geomorphic Features

1. Agricultural Significance

• Floodplains and deltas are highly fertile due to alluvial deposits.
  
• River valleys support intensive agriculture in regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains.
  

2. Mineral and Energy Resources

• Plateaus and mountains contain valuable minerals, coal, and fossil fuels.
  
• Volcanic regions often contain rich mineral deposits.
  

3. Human Settlement and Development

• Plains and river valleys are favorable for the development of settlements.
  
• Coastal regions facilitate trade and tourism.
  

4. Natural Hazards and Disaster Management

• Understanding tectonic features helps in assessing earthquake-prone zones.
  
• Knowledge of geomorphology is essential for land-use planning and disaster risk reduction.
  

5. Biodiversity and Ecosystems

• Diverse landforms provide habitats for various flora and fauna.
  
• Glacial, coastal, and mountainous ecosystems are biodiversity hotspots.
  

Geomorphic Features in the Indian Subcontinent

India displays a remarkable diversity of landforms due to its complex geological history:

• Northern Mountains: Himalayas (young fold mountains), Karakoram, Zanskar
  
• Peninsular Plateau: Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur Plateau
  
• Indo-Gangetic Plains: Formed by alluvium from Himalayan rivers
  
• Coastal Plains and Islands: Eastern and Western coasts, Andaman-Nicobar, Lakshadweep
  

Geomorphic Cycles and Theories

Several theories explain the evolution of landforms:

1. Davis’ Geographical Cycle of Erosion

• Youth → Maturity → Old Age
  
• Emphasizes sequential landform development over time
  

2. Penck’s Model

• Highlights the role of tectonic uplift and erosion simultaneously
  

3. King’s Model

• Introduced the concept of pediplanation in arid regions
  

These theories are important for the UPSC Geography optional and Mains GS Paper 1.

Conclusion

The Earth’s diverse geomorphic features not only tell the story of its geological past but also play a vital role in shaping the present and future of human civilization. From the majestic Himalayas to the fertile Ganga plains and the rugged coastal cliffs, each landform holds ecological, economic, and cultural significance. For UPSC aspirants, a thorough understanding of these features is essential for a holistic grasp of physical geography and environmental management.

UPSC Prelims PYQ

When you travel in the Himalayas, you will see the following: [2012]

1. Deep gorges

2. U-turn river courses

3. Parallel mountain ranges

4. Steep gradients causing landslides

Which of the above can be said to be evidence that the Himalayas are young fold mountains?

a) 1 & 2 Only                      b) 1, 2 & 4 Only

c) 3 & 4 Only                       d) 1,2, 3 & 4

Answer :  D

Also Read:- https://www.borthakursiasacademy.com/blog/the-dynamic-geomorphology-of-volcanoes-and-earthquakes/